How was Germany unified?
Economic and political ties among German states developed through the nineteenth century toward the empire proclaimed in 1871.
Historical context and developments
Prussian military power, Bismarck’s diplomacy and wars with Denmark, Austria and France shaped unification. A customs union deepened economic ties. Austria remained outside; not all German speakers were united.
Consequences and interpreting sources
Federal institutions, class divisions and minorities remained contested. Treating unity as inevitable hides alternatives and the cost of war.
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