What does horizontal gene transfer mean?
Horizontal gene transfer is movement of DNA between organisms outside parent-to-offspring inheritance.
Biological mechanism and regulation
Bacteria can transfer plasmids by contact, take up free DNA or gain genes through viruses. These are conjugation, transformation and transduction.
Evidence, applications and limits
Antibiotic resistance is a major example, but metabolic abilities also move. Shared genes alone do not prove close ancestry. No single molecule or measurement explains the whole system; cell type, timing, environment and feedback must be considered together.
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